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SPANISH AND GERMAN AUTHORITIES ARREST ALLEGED HEZBOLLAH MEMBERS

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Joint Operation Leads to Four Arrests

By Kaila Hall

 

On July 18, 2024, Spanish authorities announced1 the arrests2 of three individuals who had allegedly been working with the Lebanese and Iran-backed terrorist group Hezbollah. In a joint operation with Spain, German authorities also announced they had arrested an individual with ties to Hezbollah. The Spanish Civil Guard stated that the investigation into these individuals began after it had detected the purchase of large quantities of materials suitable for kamikaze drones. 2 Spanish officials stated that “the shipment of essential components for its construction has been stopped, preventing the production of UAVs intended for attacks.”

Founded in 1982, Hezbollah,3 meaning “Party of God” in Arabic, is a Lebanese Shia Islamist militant group that the United States U.S. designates as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. American intelligence reports estimate Hezbollah has over 40,000 members. All backed by Iran, Hezbollah also has close ties to Hamas and Islamic Jihad.

The Spanish Civil Guard conducted a joint operation with the German Federal Criminal Police Office and the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV). On July 15, German authorities announced4 that they had arrested Fadel Z., a Lebanese national in connection with Hezbollah. They charged him with membership in a terrorist organization, constituting a violation of Section 129a, Paragraph 1, Number 1 of the Criminal Code and Section 129b, Paragraph 1, Sentences 1 and 2 of the Criminal Code. A Der Generalbundesanwalt beim Bundesgerichtshof (Office of the Federal Public Prosecutor) press release explained that Fadel Z. became a member of Hezbollah in 2016. This year, he began gathering materials to construct military drones that officials believe were used in Hezbollah’s attacks on Israel.

Tensions between Hezbollah and Israel have escalated in recent months amid the ongoing Israel-Hamas War. In May 2024,5 Hezbollah began using new weapons and military drones to launch missiles into northern Israel, injuring three. Last month, an Israeli strike killed senior Hezbollah commander Taleb Sami Abdullah. In return, Hezbollah launched missiles toward Israel and announced it would increase attacks.6 Earlier this week,7 it also fired dozens of rockets at Israeli kibbutz Dafna in retaliation for an Israeli drone strike that wounded three.

The United States Congress has authorized numerous sanctions against entities facilitating financial transactions with Hezbollah. In 2015, Congress passed the Hizballah International Financing Prevention Act,8 which was later amended in 2018. After the Israel-Hamas War began last October, Congress passed H.Res. 599,9 “Urging the European Union to designate Hizballah in its entirety as a terrorist organization.” In the 2024 National Strategy for Combating Terrorist and Other Illicit Financing report, the U.S. Treasury Department stated that Hezbollah “members and sympathizers have long been involved in an array of large-scale criminal schemes, including sophisticated money laundering, smuggling, and trafficking networks that have involved the U.S. financial system.”10

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

 

[1] Guardia Civil. “The Civil Guard and the German Authorities Dismantle One of Hezbollah’s Drone Logistics Structures That Operate in Europe.” Guardia Civil Press Releases, 18 July 2024, www.guardiacivil.es/es/prensa/noticias/9021.html.

‌ [2] Baboolal, Samara. “Spain Authorities Arrest Suspected Hezbollah Members in Joint Operation with Germany.” Www.jurist.org, 19 July 2024, www.jurist.org/news/2024/07/spain-authorities-arrest-suspected-hezbollah-members-in-joint-operation-with-germany/. ‌

[3] Congressional Research Service. “Lebanese Hezbollah.” Congressional Research Service, 10 May 2024, crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10703#:~:text=Legislation%20and%20Issues%20for%20Congress,Prevention%20Act%20of%202015%20(P.L.

[4] Der Generalbundesanwalt beim Bundesgerichtshof. “Festnahme Eines Mutmaßlichen Mitglieds der Ausländischen Terroristischen Vereinigung „Hizb Allah “(„Hisbollah “).” Der Generalbundesanwalt Beim Bundesgerichtshof , 15 July 2024, www.generalbundesanwalt.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/DE/2024/Pressemitteilung-vom-15-07-2024.html?nn=478184.

[5] Mroue, Bassem. “Hezbollah Introduces New Weapons and Tactics against Israel as War in Gaza Drags On.” AP News, 17 May 2024, apnews.com/article/lebanon-israel-hezbollah-hamas-gaza-drone-missiles-cd9f59ffa7f876aa755b3c6612246763.

[6] Mroue, Bassem. “Hezbollah Vows to Intensify Attacks against Israel after Senior Military Commander Is Killed.” AP News, 12 June 2024, apnews.com/article/lebanon-israel-hezbollah-commander-killed-a404a607c3f96850d0dde1a5cc70c41b.

[7] “Lebanon’s Hezbollah Fires Dozens of Rockets at Israeli Kibbutz after Drone Strike Wounds Civilians.” AP News, 20 July 2024, apnews.com/article/lebanon-israel-hezbollah-hamas-rockets-kibbutz-aacd476e74ef8db2791dca485a349763. ‌

[8] “H.R.2297 – Hizballah International Financing Prevention Act of 2015 114th Congress (2015-2016).” Congress.gov, 18 Dec. 2015, www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2297#:~:text=2)%20This%20bill%20states%20that,Hizballah’s%20criminal%20activities%20in%20order.

[9] “H.Res.599 – Urging the European Union to Designate Hizballah in Its Entirety as a Terrorist Organization.” Congress.gov, 19 Oct. 2023, www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-resolution/599.

[10] “Treasury Announces 2024 National Illicit Finance Strategy.” U.S. Department of the Treasury, 16 May 2024, home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy2346.

BINANCE MONEY LAUNDERING TRIAL ADJOURNED IN NIGERIA

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Judge Emeka Nwite Adjourns Trial to October

By Kaila Hall

 

On Tuesday, July 16, 2024, Justice Emeka Nwite adjourned1 the money laundering trial of cryptocurrency exchange platform Binance alongside two of its executives. The trial will now occur on October 11 after the Nigerian Court’s federal holiday. Binance’s Head of Financial Crime Compliance, Tigran Gambaryan, and regional African manager, Nadeem Anjarwalla have faced a series of legal charges, for which they have pleaded not guilty.

Following reports of Gambaryan’s deteriorating health, Justice Nwite also issued2 an arrest warrant on Tuesday for Dr. Abraham Ehizojie, the medical doctor at the Kuje Correctional Health Centre where Gambaryan was detained. The Binance executive arrived3 at his Tuesday hearing in a wheelchair. Gambaryan’s lawyer, Mark Mordi, explained that his client has back pain and stated, “We need to be careful of the life in our hands.”4 On July 5, Justice Nwite ordered the release of Gambaryan’s medical report by July 16. However, Dr. Ehizojie refused to provide it to Nigeria’s Federal High Court.

On February 28, 2024, Nigerian officials arrested5 Tigran Gambaryan, Binance’s Head of Financial Crime Compliance, and his colleague, Nadeem Anjarwalla upon their arrival in the country for a meeting on the government ban on cryptocurrency channels. While Gambaryan remained in custody, Anjarwalla fled Nigeria in March. On March 22, 2024, the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) filed tax evasion charges against both executives. The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) also accused Binance of laundering more than $35 million through its platform. Although FIRS dropped6 their tax evasion charges in June, Gambaryan and Anjarwalla continue to face money laundering charges.

The decision to adjourn the money laundering case came just a week after Congressman Richard McCormick and Congressman French Hill introduced House Resolution 1348,7 urging the Government of Nigeria to immediately release Tigran Gambaryan from imprisonment. The resolution also “urges the United States Government to formally declare Tigran Gambaryan as a ‘U.S. citizen wrongfully detained by a foreign government’ pursuant to section 302(a) of the Robert Levinson Hostage Recovery and Hostage-Taking Accountability Act (22 U.S.C. 1741(a)).”8

In early June, 16 Members of Congress also sent a letter9 to President Biden and Secretary of State Antony Blinken, requesting their assistance in releasing Gambaryan. The letter described the “excessive and harsh treatment” that Gambaryan has faced while detained in the notorious Kuje prison on baseless charges by the Nigerian government. Congressmen also noted that he was denied access to his legal team “without the presence of government officials and armed guards.” The Members of Congress called on Biden administration officials to classify Gambaryan as a “U.S. Citizen wrongfully detained by a foreign government,” as defined under the “Robert Levinson Hostage Recovery and Hostage-Taking Accountability Act.”

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

 

[1] Eboh, Camillus. “Nigerian Judge Adjourns Binance Money Laundering Trial to October.” Reuters, 16 July 2024, www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerian-judge-adjourns-binance-money-laundering-trial-october-2024-07-16/.

 

[2] “Court Orders Arrest of Prison Doctor over Binance Executive’s Health.” Punch Newspapers, 16 July 2024, punchng.com/court-orders-arrest-of-prison-doctor-over-binance-executives-health/.

 

[3] Nigeria, News Agency of. “Binance Executive Gambaryan Arrives Courtroom in Wheelchair.” Peoples Gazette Nigeria, 16 July 2024, gazettengr.com/binance-executive-gambaryan-arrives-courtroom-in-wheelchair/.

 

[4] Reporters, Our. “Court Orders Arrest of Prison Doctor over Binance Executive’s Health.” Punch Newspapers, 16 July 2024, punchng.com/court-orders-arrest-of-prison-doctor-over-binance-executives-health/.

 

[5] Egbejule, Eromo. “Binance Executive Denied Bail in Nigeria over Money Laundering Charges.” The Guardian, 17 May 2024, www.theguardian.com/technology/article/2024/may/17/binance-executive-denied-bail-in-nigeria-over-money-laundering-charges.

 

[6] Hall, Kaila. “BINANCE RELIEVED after TAX EVASION CHARGES DROPPED.” IELR Blog, 19 June 2024, ielrblog.com/index.php/2024/06/18/binance-relieved-after-tax-evasion-charges-dropped/. ‌

[7] McCormick, Richard. “H.Res.1348 – Urging the Government of Nigeria to Immediately Release Tigran Gambaryan from Imprisonment.” Congress.gov, 10 July 2024, www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-resolution/1348/text.

 

[8] Melendez, Bob. “S.712 – Robert Levinson Hostage Recovery and Hostage-Taking Accountability Act.” Congress.gov, 7 Mar. 2019, www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/712.

‌[9] U.S. Congress. “Letter to President Biden, Secretary Blinken, and Special Presidential Envoy Carstens.” House Foreign Affairs Committee, 4 June 2024, foreignaffairs.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/McCormick-Letter-Gambaryan.pdf.

NEW WORKING ARRANGEMENTS TO CRACK DOWN ON ORGANIZED CRIME

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Eurojust Signs Working Arrangements with Five Latin American Countries

By Kaila Hall

 

On July 10, 2024, the European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation (Eurojust) announced1 that it signed working arrangements with the Prosecution Services of Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Peru. These agreements aim to increase efficiency and reinforce judicial cooperation between states in an effort to crack down on rising crime rates.
Based in The Hague, Eurojust is composed2 of the College, an association of National Members, appointed by European Union Member States to lead Eurojust’s operations. By virtue of over a dozen working agreements with non-EU states, Eurojust permits European prosecutors to operate in over 70 jurisdictions worldwide. Many of these prosecutors also serve as Liaison Prosecutors who may collaborate on various cases.

Earlier this year, Europol released a report titled “Decoding the EU’s Most Threatening Criminal Networks,”3 prompting national authorities to take action. According to the report, 68% of criminal networks are composed of members from multiple nationalities, while 32% have members from one country. Furthermore, 76% of the most threatening criminal networks extend into two to seven countries. Europol observed that these networks are primarily implicated in drug trafficking, fraud, property crime, migrant smuggling, and human trafficking. Nearly half of the world’s most dangerous criminal networks are involved in drug trafficking. 36 % of them are solely focused on it.

Due to the Europol report’s findings, numerous national authorities have joined forces with the European Union using working arrangements. These agreements specifically target drug and arms trafficking, money laundering, and cybercrime. Eurojust has also announced plans to disrupt drug trafficking routes after over €25 billion worth of drugs were seized last year.

In response to the agreements, Ladislav Hamran, President of Eurojust, lauded efforts to quash the €31 billion4 illicit drug trafficking market in Europe. President Hamran explained, “To mitigate and halt the enormous harm to societies and individuals in both the European Union and Latin America, our response needs to be effective and collaborative. It is essential for prosecutors from Europe and Latin America to unite and devise strategies for closer cooperation, enabling us to not only disrupt criminal networks but also hold them accountable in court.”

The European Commissioner for Justice, Didier Reynders, also affirmed that “Today, we open a new chapter in the cooperation between the EU and six strategic partners in this field. By building on our shared values and common strategic interests, we can equip judicial authorities with the necessary instruments for safeguarding the rights of our citizens while enabling effective cooperation “on the ground.”

To date, Eurojust has signed5 working arrangements with the Ibero-American Association of Public Prosecutors Offices, Nigeria, Panama, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. According to Eurojust officials, Panama’s January 2024 Working Agreement has already yielded results.

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

[1] An Important Step against Organised Crime: Eurojust Signs Working Arrangements with Five Latin American Countries | Eurojust | European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation.” 10 July 2024. Www.eurojust.europa.eu, www.eurojust.europa.eu/news/important-step-against-organised-crime-eurojust-signs-working-arrangements-five-latin-american.

[2] “Who We Are | Eurojust | European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation.” Www.eurojust.europa.eu, www.eurojust.europa.eu/about-us/who-we-are.

[3] CRIMINAL NETWORKS the EU’S MOST THREATENING DECODING. May 2024, www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/Europol%20report%20on%20Decoding%20the%20EU-s%20most%20threatening%20criminal%20networks.pdf, https://doi.org/10.2813/811566.

[4] European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction and Europol, 2024, “EU Drug Markets Analysis: Key insights for policy and practice,” Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/EU%20Drug%20Markets%20Analysis%202024.pdf

[5] “Working Arrangements | Eurojust | European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation.” Www.eurojust.europa.eu, www.eurojust.europa.eu/states-and-partners/third-countries/working-arrangements.

 

 

HOSTAGE NEGOTIATOR MICKEY BERGMAN DISCUSSES NEW BOOK AT STIMSON CENTER

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Bergman’s Book In The Shadows Provides Key Insight On Freeing Americans Detained Abroad

By Kaila Hall

 

On July 11, hostage negotiator Mickey Bergman discussed1 his new book, In the Shadows: True Stories of High-Stakes Negotiations to Free Americans Captured Abroad,2 at the Stimson Center. Released in June 2024, In the Shadows details Bergman’s accounts of high-profile negotiations, including Brittney Griner, Danny Fenster, Otto Warmbier, Trevor Reed, and countless others. The event was moderated by Stimson Center President and Chief Executive Officer Brian Finlay.

Michael “Mickey” Bergman serves as the Vice President and Executive Director of the Richardson Center for Global Engagement, where he manages efforts to negotiate the release of political prisoners.3 Named after U.S. Ambassador Bill Richardson, the Center advocates for global peace and dialogue. Bergman has over 18 years of experience in “Fringe Diplomacy, a discipline exploring the space just beyond the boundaries of States and Governments’ capacity and authority in international relations.”5 The Richardson Center works solely on behalf of the families of Americans captured abroad at no cost.

At the Stimson Center, Bergman began by discussing the negotiation process to release American journalist Danny Fenster who was detained at the Yangon International Airport in Myanmar following the 2021 military coup. During the coup d’état, the Tatmadaw military deposed Myanmar’s State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, and installed Senior General Min Aung Hlaing into power. Fenster previously worked for a legal publication before the coup and consequently remained in custody for six months. At the request of Fenster’s family, the Richardson Center team initiated the negotiation process and secretly secured a deal by creating a personal friendship with Myanmar’s leader. Following an expedited trial and sentencing, Fenster was released and flown first to Qatar, then the US.

Afterward, Bergman addressed criticism that hostage negotiations could incentivize foreign regimes to hold more Americans hostage in the future to receive something in return from the US. While Bergman certainly understood the critique, he found it “intellectually lazy” and “morally bankrupt” because avoiding release deals would essentially build a “deterrence policy on the backs of innocent captured Americans.” He stated, “We need to do everything we can to bring them home and it’s our responsibility once they’re home to come up with the deterrence policies that can actually help mitigate this issue going into the future.” He also added that there is no statistical correlation between the release deals and more Americans being detained afterward.

Throughout his experience, Bergman stated he has identified two cardinal truths: hostage deals never improve over time, and that time is detrimental to the health of hostages. He has also devised the theory of return in which the team develops a uniquely tailored strategy to ensure the most efficient pathway toward the release of captured Americans.

On the question of deterrence, Mickey Bergman explained that his job was to bring captured Americans home rather than to deter countries from taking more hostages. He noted that the repeat offenders of “hostage diplomacy” are often the most sanctioned by the US. Under these terms, “hostage diplomacy” becomes a mode of communication for these states. Bergman suggested that Red Notices on hostage-holders could be beneficial but risky in terms of deterrence. Additionally, he pointed to forms of positive deterrence in which a bilateral agreement accompanies the release of a hostage.

Bergman also touched upon efforts to release hostages held in Gaza by Hamas following the October 7, 2023, attacks in Israel. In the first 54 days, Bergman stated that his theory of return successfully released 109 hostages, but has struggled to produce results in the months since. He particularly emphasized unsuccessful efforts to convince Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to accept a ceasefire deal to release the remaining hostages. Bergman suggested that, to Netanyahu, as long as there are hostages, Israel’s war is justified, and no elections will be held as a result. The hostage negotiator believes that if President Biden can secure a humanitarian deal to release the Israeli-American hostages, this will provide leverage to convince Netanyahu to accept the deal.

In 2019 and 2023, Mickey Bergman was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his hostage negotiations alongside Ambassador Richardson. Following Ambassador Richardson’s passing in September 2023, Bergman became the CEO of Global Reach, an organization dedicated to bringing home wrongfully detained Americans abroad whether by terrorist groups, criminal gangs, or foreign governments.6

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

 

[1] The Stimson Center’s conversation with Mickey Bergman may be viewed here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzBOwQYPgZo

[2] Mickey Bergman’s book In the Shadows may be purchased here: https://www.amazon.com/Shadows-High-Stakes-Negotiations-Americans-Captured/dp/1546004750

[3] Staff | the Richardson Center. 2 July 2015, www.richardsondiplomacy.org/staff-members/.

[4] ‌Our Mission | the Richardson Center. 29 June 2015, www.richardsondiplomacy.org/about-us/.

[5] ‌Staff | the Richardson Center. 2 July 2015, www.richardsondiplomacy.org/staff-members/.

[6] “Global Reach.” Www.reach.global, www.reach.global.‌

 

SPANISH AUTHORITIES ARREST ALLEGED CHINESE MONEY LAUNDERING GANG MEMBERS

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A Europol-Backed Joint Law Enforcement Investigation Leads To Five Arrests

By Kaila Hall

 

On July 5, 2024, Europol announced1 that five alleged members of a Chinese money laundering gang had been arrested in Spain, following extensive French and Spanish police searches. Europol supported this joint law enforcement investigation into the criminal network that is believed to have smuggled over €1 million a day. Among those arrested is the alleged leader of the gang.

From July 2 and 3, approximately one hundred Spanish National Police officers searched homes, restaurants, warehouses, and company headquarters, with the assistance of French Judicial Customs and Europol. These searches occurred in Madrid, Valencia, Alicante, and Barcelona, and led to nearly €160,000 in cash seized. Spanish police also arrested2 two owners of Chinese restaurants in Valencia who were alleged gang members. Spanish authorities suspect that the arrested businessmen are private lenders who help launder significant sums of money across Europe. Additionally, the Spanish National Police searched two ships in Crevillent near Valencia. Several counterfeit articles of clothing, cash, and fraudulent documentation were obtained. The European Multidisciplinary Platform Against Criminal Threats3 (EMPACT) funded the arrest operation.

In February 2021, the French National Anti-Fraud Office (ONAF) began investigating the criminal network after French customs at Perpignan seized over €500,000 in cash in a car near the French-Spanish border.4 With the guidance of the specialized interregional jurisdiction (JIRS) of Marseille, the ONAF identified an alleged Chinese money laundering network leader who lived in Spain. The ONAF believes that the gang has been trafficking counterfeit goods, has been implicated in prostitution, and has been committing tax and customs fraud across Europe since 2019. For several years, the gang has utilized a vast network of criminals across all European Union states to transfer cash.

Following the ONAF investigation, French authorities alerted the Spanish National Police. Subsequently, the Spanish Drugs and Organized Crime Unit (UDYCO) and the Central Economic and Fiscal Crime Unit (UDEF) launched an investigation into the Chinese money laundering network. With the help of French authorities and Europol, the Seventh Court of First Instance and Instruction in Parla, Spain coordinated the operation to dismantle the crime network.

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

[1] “French and Spanish Authorities Crack down on Chinese Money Laundering Gang.” Europol, www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/french-and-spanish-authorities-crack-down-chinese-money-laundering-gang#empact.

[2] ‌Martínez, Javier. “Cae Una Mafia China Que Tenía Capacidad Para Blanquear Un Millón de Euros al Día.” Las Provincias, 5 July 2024, www.lasprovincias.es/sucesos/golpe-policial-mafia-china-blanqueaba-dinero-valencia-20240705094541-nt.html?ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lasprovincias.es%2Fsucesos%2Fgolpe-policial-mafia-china-blanqueaba-dinero-valencia-20240705094541-nt.html.

[3] “EU Policy Cycle – EMPACT.” Europol, www.europol.europa.eu/crime-areas-and-statistics/empact.

[4] “Individual Arrested in Barcelona for Being Part of Chinese Group Capable of Money Laundering €1m Daily.” Www.catalannews.com, 5 July 2024, www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/individual-arrested-in-barcelona-for-being-part-of-chinese-group-capable-of-money-laundering-1m-daily.

 

 

ARGENTINE PROSECUTOR REQUESTS ARREST WARRANTS FOR KEY ROHINGYA GENOCIDE SUSPECTS

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Argentine Prosecutor Petitions Argentine Court for 25 Arrest Warrants

By Kaila Hall

 

On June 30, 2024, the Argentine Prosecutor in charge of investigating1 the Rohingya Genocide petitioned2 the Argentinian Court for arrest warrants under Article 294 of the Criminal Procedure Code of Argentina due to allegations of genocide and crimes against humanity. The prosecutor sought warrants for 25 key suspects, including Min Aung Hlaing, Commander-in-Chief and 2021 military coup leader, and Soe Win, Deputy Commander-in-Chief. Additionally, the prosecutor requested arrest warrants for Aung Kyaw Zaw, Commander of the Bureau of Special Operations No. 3, and Aung San Mya, village Chairman. It is now up to the Argentinian Court to determine whether to grant the arrest warrants.

In 2019, the Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK (BROUK) originally brought the Rohingya genocide case against Myanmar to court in Argentina under the universal jurisdiction principle. The Second Chamber of the Federal Criminal Court in Buenos Aires accepted3 the case in November 2021, making it the first universal jurisdiction case to recognize the genocide. BROUK alleges that the aforementioned officials, along with several others, have been committing genocide and crimes against humanity against the Rohingya and other Burmese communities in the Rakhine province of Myanmar since the February 2021 Tatmadaw military coup4 that installed Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as chairman of the State Administration Council.

Upon hearing of the Argentine petition, Tun Khin, President of Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK announced, “Today we are one more step closer to finally seeing the first ever arrest warrants for Min Aung Hlaing and senior members of the Burmese military” and “The decision to request arrest warrants sends a clear message to the Burmese military that they will not be able to escape accountability for their crimes.”

The Argentine petition was filed shortly before the International Court of Justice allowed the intervention of seven states in the Gambia v. Myanmar Rohingya genocide case. On July 3, the ICJ declared5 it admissible for Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, the French Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and Northern Ireland to intervene in the case under Article 63 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.

Amid the increasing prevalence of universal jurisdiction, Argentina’s decision to prosecute such cases is interesting, considering the country’s extreme debt crisis. Since 2001, Argentina has defaulted on its debt three times- the most recent being May 2020.6 Consequently, the government has implemented a debt restructuring plan. According to the International Monetary Fund, Argentina’s debt constituted 84.47% of its GDP in 2022.7

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

[1]  Joseph, James. “Argentina Prosecutor Requests Arrest Warrants for Rohingya Genocide Suspects.” Www.jurist.org, 30 June 2024, www.jurist.org/news/2024/06/argentina-prosecutor-requests-arrest-warrants-for-rohingya-genocide-suspects/.

[2] Procuración General de la Nación. “Petición de Delitos de Lesa Humanidad Y Ciertas Infracciones Gravísimas Del Derecho Humanitario.” Ministerio Público Fiscal, 30 June 2024, www.jurist.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2024/06/photo.jpeg.

‌[3] BROUK. “Media Release from Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK.” Brouk.org.uk, 2024, www.brouk.org.uk/historic-decision-by-argentinian-courts-to-take-up-genocide-case-against-myanmar/.

[4] Maizland, Lindsay. “Myanmar’s Troubled History: Coups, Military Rule, and Ethnic Conflict.” Council on Foreign Relations, 31 Jan. 2022, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya.

[5] International Court of Justice. “Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (the Gambia v. Myanmar).” ICJ Press Release, 3 July 2024, www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/178/178-20240703-pre-01-00-en.pdf.

‌[6] European Parliament. “Argentina’s Debt Restructuring and Economy Ahead of the 2023 Elections | Think Tank | European Parliament.” Www.europarl.europa.eu, www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2023)753938.

[7] International Monetary Fund. “Central Government Debt .” International Monetary Fund, 2022, www.imf.org/external/datamapper/CG_DEBT_GDP@GDD/CHN/FRA/DEU/ITA/JPN/GBR/USA.

BANK OF ITALY IDENTIFIES POSSIBLE ILLEGAL TRANSACTIONS TO RUSSIA

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Financial Intelligence Unit Announces 150,000 Illegal Transactions in 2023 Annual Report

By Kaila Hall

On June 26, 2024, the Bank of Italy announced1 the Financial Intelligence Unit’s (FIU) 2023 Annual Report, identifying over 150,000 illegal transactions, some of which had possible links to Russia. The Annual Report compiles information2 regarding money laundering and the financing of terrorism to be sent to an investigative agency for further investigation. During the presentation of the 2023 Annual Report, Enzo Serata, the Director of the Financial Information Unit of the Bank of Italy, noted that the Aggregate Anti-Money Laundering Reports (SARA) data identified “some anomalous flows,”3 which were then alerted to AML investigative agencies. SARA reports detected foreign transfers that passed through third countries and ultimately ended up in Russia. Consequently, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) will soon launch4 a Mutual Evaluation of the Italian anti-money laundering system. FATF5 is expected to evaluate the effectiveness of the preventive AML measures and assess technical compliance. The Bank of Italy believes these transfers were carried out to evade European sanctions on Russia.

The Annual Report was released amid the European Union’s release of its fourteenth package6 of economic sanctions on Russia since its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Sanctions target Russia’s financial, trade, energy, transport, technology and defense sectors. Specifically, the EU has implemented new restrictions on Russian imports and exports, such as natural gas and coal. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen stated7 that the sanctions will “further deny Russia access to key technologies,” “strip Russia of further energy revenues,” and “tackle Putin’s shadow fleet and shadow banking network abroad.” The European Council estimates8 it has blocked 210 billion euros of assets from the Central Bank of Russia and has frozen 24.9 billion euros of private Russian assets.

Earlier last month, the EU also passed three new anti-money laundering (AML) laws. The AML package established9 the Anti-Money Laundering and Countering the Financing of Terrorism Authority (AMLA) to bolster surveillance mechanisms, enhance coordination among FIUs, and ensure the consistent application of EU rules. Alongside the sixth anti-money laundering directive, the AML package has also included a rulebook of preventative measures to block money laundering and terrorist financing through the financial system.

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

[1] Piccioli, Matteo. “Bank of Italy Reports Possible Illegal Transactions to Russia.” JURIST, 27 June 2024, www.jurist.org/news/2024/06/bank-of-italy-reports-possible-illegal-transactions-to-russia/.

[2] Rossi, Sara. “Bank of Italy Signals Potentially Illegal Transfers from Italian Accounts to Russia in 2023.” Yahoo Reuters, 26 June 2024, uk.news.yahoo.com/news/bank-italy-signals-potentially-illegal-113442156.html?guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAM3fIbpQzuuqwk-9E_lLQoc2Ab94yAROrBYivimjCqifDAxjTF9apY-lHox9WpdssgAV3ZX6QpzDi7Lt2q6ZRCkcQUiohCrbdWuMYLHxy73bG81ao8293bZxJC3p0n1aZvx8bUrfT-A-5ukazo8G4Tt_1HGvvmtKA3EMN2hJCedN&guccounter=2.

[3] Goria, Fabrizio. “L’allarme Di Banca d’Italia: Soldi in Russia Aggirando I Divieti.” La Stampa, 26 June 2024, www.lastampa.it/economia/2024/06/26/news/banca_ditalia_flussi_russia_italia_sanzioni-14425515/?ref=ST-LA-1.

[4] d’Italia, Banca. “UIF – Rapporto Annuale per Il 2023, N. 16 – 2024.” Uif.bancaditalia.it, uif.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/rapporto-annuale/2024/index.html?dotcache=refresh.

[5] ‌“Mutual Evaluations.” Www.fatf-Gafi.org, www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/Mutualevaluations/More-about-mutual-evaluations.html.

‌[6] Piccioli, Matteo. “EU Confirms New Package of Sanctions against Russia.” Www.jurist.org, 20 June 2024, www.jurist.org/news/2024/06/eu-confirms-new-package-of-sanctions-against-russia/.

[7] von der Leyen, Ursula. “X.com.” X (Formerly Twitter), 2 June 2024,  x.com/vonderleyen/status/1803706357146619959..

[8] “EU Sanctions against Russia Explained.” European Council, www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/sanctions-against-russia/sanctions-against-russia-explained/.

‌[9] “About AMLA – European Commission.” Finance.ec.europa.eu, finance.ec.europa.eu/financial-crime/amla/about-amla_en.

 

RUSSIAN NATIONAL CHARGED FOR CONSPIRING WITH RUSSIAN MILITARY INTELLIGENCE TO ATTACK UKRAINIAN GOVERNMENT COMPUTER SYSTEMS

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Maryland Federal Grandy Jury Indicts Amin Timovich Stigal

By Kaila Hall

 

On June 25, 2024, a Maryland Federal Grand Jury charged1 Russian national Amin Timovich Stigal with conspiracy to hack into and destroy the Ukrainian Government’s computer systems and data ahead of Russia’s invasion in February 2022. Stigal allegedly attacked computer systems in countries that supported Ukraine, including the United States. Stigal currently remains at large. The U.S. District Court in Maryland issued a warrant for Stigal’s arrest. The Department of State is offering a reward2 of up to $10 million for information on Stigal’s location or his malicious cyber activity.

Stigal has been linked to several Russian cyberattacks against Ukraine and NATO-allied nations in recent years. From August 5, 2021, through February 3, 2022, Stigal and the Russian Federation’s Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff (GRU) used the data-wiping malware WhisperGate to examine U.S. Federal Government computers in Maryland. The WhisperGate malware initially wipes all computer files, then proceeds to imitate ransomware by displaying a ransom note demanding $10,000 in Bitcoin. In the event that the ransom was paid, the computer data would be irretrievable, nonetheless. Per court documents from the U.S. District Court in Maryland, Stigal and GRU probed U.S. government websites and computers 63 times. The District Court did not disclose whether the probing of U.S. systems in Maryland was successful. The indictment stated that Stigal and the Russian military officers used fake identities, a global network of computers, and cryptocurrency to conceal their connection to the Russian government.

The U.S. District Court in Maryland’s indictment also pointed to an incident Stigal was involved in on January 13, 2022, in which he allegedly conspired with the GRU to use “WhisperGate” to launch cyber-attacks against the Ukrainian Government. Leading up to the invasion of Ukraine, the Russian military urged Stigal to hack into Ukrainian government computers that deal with matters of critical infrastructure,3 agriculture, education, science, and emergency services. Stigal and the GRU targeted multiple Ukrainian government entities,4 including the Ukrainian Ministry of International Affairs, the State Treasury, the Judiciary Administration, the State Portal for Digital Services, the Ministry of Education and Science, the Ministry of Agriculture, the State Service for Food Safety and Consumer Protection, the Ministry of Energy, the Accounting Chamber for Ukraine, the State Emergency Service, the State Forestry Agency, and the Motor Insurance Bureau.

Federal prosecutors5 alleged that the Ukrainian State Portal for Digital Services website was hacked and displayed a message saying, “Ukrainians! All information about you has become public, be afraid and expect the worst. This is for your past, present and future.”

Per U.S. Sentencing Guidelines, Stigal faces a maximum penalty of five years in prison if convicted. A federal district court judge will review such guidelines and determine the sentence if applicable.

In response to the January 2022 WhisperGate incident, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg criticized the attacks, stating “NATO has worked closely with Ukraine for years to help boost its cyber defences. NATO cyber experts in Brussels have been exchanging information with their Ukrainian counterparts on the current malicious cyber activities. Allied experts in country are also supporting the Ukrainian authorities on the ground. In the coming days, NATO and Ukraine will sign an agreement on enhanced cyber cooperation, including Ukrainian access to NATO’s malware information sharing platform. NATO’s strong political and practical support for Ukraine will continue.”6

Following Stigal’s indictment, Attorney General Merrick Garland confirmed, “The Justice Department will continue to stand with Ukraine on every front in its fight against Russia’s war of aggression, including by holding accountable those who support Russia’s malicious cyber activity.” Assistant Attorney General Matthew Olsen also indicated that “the Department will do its part to prevent and disrupt such malicious behavior that relies upon online services or infrastructure in the U.S., or that targets U.S. victims.” Assistant Attorney General also noted the Justice Department would “also identify, pursue, and eventually hold to account those responsible for Russia’s malicious actions, including the cybercriminals that the Russian government cultivates in furtherance of its malign agenda.”

The Russian Embassy in Washington D.C. has not released a statement regarding the indictment. The indictment was announced amid a series of diplomatic talks between the United States and Russia on cyber-attacks.

On January 14, 2022, at the request of the United States, Russia’s Federal Security Service (FSB) conducted7 raids and arrested fourteen alleged members of REvil, a Russian-based ransomware crime group. The FSB announced it had also seized 426 million rubles or $600,000 of computer equipment. In June 2021, U.S. President Joseph Biden met with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Geneva and demanded Putin’s cooperation in combating cyber-attacks and ransomware. A month later, Biden warned Putin that Russia would face severe consequences if it did not act promptly to neutralize ransomware actors and threats. In the months since Biden’s initial meeting with Putin, American officials have reiterated their requests for anti-cybercrime cooperation. The U.S. and Russia have established an “expert group” to address cyber-attacks. In February 2023, another cyber-attack attributed to TA471 (UAC-0056), a Russian-allied cyber threat actor, also used WhisperGate to target and destroy Ukranian government entities’ computer systems. TA471 has also attacked multiple NATO member states that support Ukraine.

 

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

 

[1] “Office of Public Affairs | Russian National Charged for Conspiring with Russian Military Intelligence to Destroy Ukrainian Government Computer Systems and Data | United States Department of Justice.” justice.gov, 26 June 2024,

www.justice.gov/opa/pr/russian-national-charged-conspiring-russia-military-intelligence-destroy-ukrainian

 

[2] Amin Stigal – Rewards for Justice. net/rewards/amin-stigal/.

 

[3] Mettler, “$10M Offered for Russian Accused in “WhisperGate” Malware Attack on Ukraine.” Washington Post, 26 June 2024,

www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/06/26/10m-offered-russian-accused-whispergate-malware-attack-ukraine/

 

[4] “Office of Public Affairs | Russian National Charged for Conspiring with Russian Military Intelligence to Destroy Ukrainian Government Computer Systems and Data | United States Department of Justice.” justice.gov, 26 June 2024,

www.justice.gov/opa/pr/russian-national-charged-conspiring-russia-military-intelligence-destroy-ukrainian

 

[5] Mettler, “$10M Offered for Russian Accused in “WhisperGate” Malware Attack on Ukraine.” Washington Post, 26 June 2024,

www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/06/26/10m-offered-russian-accused-whispergate-malware-attack-ukraine/

 

[6] “Statement by the NATO Secretary General on Cyber Attacks against Ukraine.” NATO, www.google.com/url?q=www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_190850.htm&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1719606038338 933&usg=AOvVaw32hkQxjdX24iSgGfq1Du45

 

[7] Zagaris, “RUSSIA ARRESTS 14 ALLEGED MEMBERS of the REVIL RANSOMWARE GANG as UKRAINE EXPERIENCES HACKS and MALWARE.” IELR , 18 Jan. 2022,

ielr.com/content/russia-arrests-14-alleged-members-revil-ransomware-gang-ukraine-experiences-hacks-and

UNITED STATES AND CHINA HOLD ANTI-NARCOTICS TALKS

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U.S. and China Hold Negotiations After Drug-Linked Money Laundering Operation Uncovered.

By Kaila Hall

 

On June 20, 2024, the United States and China held historic talks on anti-narcotics cooperation.1 In January 2024, the U.S. and China renewed2 efforts to crack down on drug trafficking operations after a yearlong suspension of counternarcotics cooperation between both nations. In April 2024, Secretary of the Treasury Janet L. Yellen also held bilateral meetings3 with Vice Premier He Lifeng of the People’s Republic of China in Guangzhou, China. They launched a Joint Treasury-PBOC Cooperation and Exchange on Anti-Money Laundering initiative to combat money laundering and shut down financial avenues for drug trafficking, human trafficking, and fraud.

In the most recent counternarcotics talks in June 2024, the Director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy, Rahul Gupta met with China’s Minister of Public Security, Wang Xiaohong. These negotiations came just a week after the Department of Justice indicted4 Los Angeles-based associates of Mexico’s Sinaloa drug cartel for conspiring with money-laundering groups linked to Chinese underground banking to launder drug trafficking proceeds. The Justice Department found that over $50 million in drug proceeds were exchanged between the Sinaloa Cartel associates and Chinese underground entities. Chinese and Mexican law enforcement cooperated with the Justice Department and arrested fugitives who fled the United States following their indictment.

Dr. Gupta lauded the recent joint law enforcement action as “a significant step” and a “concrete exampl[e] of the counternarcotics cooperation.” Wang explained that the recent operation and talks between the U.S. and China “are all proof that our counternarcotics cooperation has been quite fruitful – they also show China’s goodwill and friendship.”

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,5 over 100,000 Americans died from drug overdoses for the first time in 2021. In response to allegations of fueling the opioid epidemic in the U.S., Chinese officials have repeatedly denied such accusations. The Deputy Director General of the Ministry of Public Security’s Narcotics Control Bureau, Yu Haibin, has instead argued that the “roots lie within the United States itself.” In a June 2024 interview with state broadcaster CGTN, Yu Haibin blamed the U.S. for creating the fentanyl epidemic due to “its own misuse of prescription drugs.” He ended by announcing that “China is willing to offer full support in terms of material control, intelligence sharing, law enforcement and combating transnational crimes.”

 

Kaila Hall is an intern at IELR. She is a rising senior at Cornell University.

 

[1] Slodkowski, Antoni. “US, China Hold High-Level Talks on Anti-Narcotics Cooperation.” Reuters, 20 June 2024, www.reuters.com/world/us-china-hold-high-level-talks-anti-narcotics-cooperation-2024-06-20/#:~:text=BEIJING%2C%20June%2020%20(Reuters).

 

[2] Frayer, Janis, and Jennifer Jett. “U.S. And China to Hold High-Level Talks Aimed at Curbing the Fentanyl Crisis.” NBC News, 26 Jan. 2024, www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-china-fentanyl-talks-opioids-drugs-epidemic-precursor-rcna135399.

 

[3] “READOUT: Secretary of the Treasury Janet L. Yellen’s Bilateral Meetings with Vice Premier He Lifeng of the People’s Republic of China in Guangzhou, China.” U.S. Department of the Treasury, 24 June 2024, home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy2231.

 

[4] “Office of Public Affairs | Federal Indictment Alleges Alliance between Sinaloa Cartel and Money Launderers Linked to Chinese Underground Banking | United States Department of Justice.” Www.justice.gov, 18 June 2024, www.justice.gov/opa/pr/federal-indictment-alleges-alliance-between-sinaloa-cartel-and-money-launderers-linked#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThis%20DEA%20investigation%20uncovered%20a.

 

[5] CDC. “Provisional Drug Overdose Data.” CDC, 2022, www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/drug-overdose-data.htm.

‌[6] Frayer, Janis, and Jennifer Jett. “U.S. And China to Hold High-Level Talks Aimed at Curbing the Fentanyl Crisis.” NBC News, 26 Jan. 2024, www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-china-fentanyl-talks-opioids-drugs-epidemic-precursor-rcna135399.

BINANCE RELIEVED AFTER TAX EVASION CHARGES DROPPED

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Federal High Court of Nigeria Drops Tax Evasion Charges Against Binance Executives

By Kaila Hall

 

On June 14, 2024, the Federal High Court of Nigeria discharged[1] two executives of the cryptocurrency exchange platform Binance after the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) charged them with tax evasion. The amended charges by the FIRS effectively dropped charges against Tigran Gambaryan and Nadeem Anjarwalla. In response to the decision, Binance expressed its relief and commended the FIRS “for their diligence and professionalism throughout this process. This situation unequivocally demonstrates Binance’s commitment to resolving this issue with the government transparently and cooperatively.” Binance also called on the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission to follow the Federal High Court’s decision and allow an ailing Gambaryan to return home to his family. It has been reported that he collapsed in court on May 23 and was recently diagnosed with malaria and pneumonia.

On February 28, 2024, Nigerian officials arrested[2] Tigran Gambaryan, Binance’s Head of Financial Crime Compliance, and his colleague, Nadeem Anjarwalla upon their arrival in the country for a meeting on the government ban on cryptocurrency channels. While Gambaryan remained in custody, Anjarwalla fled Nigeria in March. On March 22, 2024, the FIRS filed tax evasion charges against both executives. This legal action came after Binance recently appointed Ayodele Omotilewa to handle the platform’s Nigerian Operations.[3] Gambaryan and Anjarwalla have both pleaded not guilty to all charges.

Amid the Nigerian naira currency debacle,[4] Nigerians have begun relying on cryptocurrencies to protect their savings from the 33.2% inflation rate.[5] Binance has become the primary platform for cryptocurrency trading in the country, prompting concern from the Nigerian government.[6]

Although FIRS has dropped tax evasion charges against both Binance executives, Gambaryan and Anjarwalla continue to face separate money laundering charges nonetheless.[7] Following their February 28 arrests, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) accused Binance of laundering more than $35m through its platform.[8] On May 16, Olanipekun Olukoyede, Head of EFCC, stated that virtual currency trading and cryptocurrencies “are potential platforms to fund terrorism.”[9]

The EFCC trial is set to continue on June 20. Gambaryan remains in the Kuje prison.

In early June, 16 Members of Congress sent a letter to President Biden and Secretary of State Antony Blinken, requesting their assistance to release Gambaryan, a wrongfully detained American citizen.[10]  The letter described the “excessive and harsh treatment” that Gambaryan has faced while detained in the notorious Kuje prison on baseless charges by the Nigerian government. Congressmen also noted that he was denied access to his legal team “without the presence of government officials and armed guards.” The Members of Congress argued that Gambaryan qualifies as a “U.S. Citizen wrongfully detained by a foreign government,” as defined in the “Robert Levinson Hostage Recovery and Hostage-Taking Accountability Act.” As Gambaryan’s health deteriorated, these Congressmen urged President Biden to take immediate action to preserve Gambaryan’s life.

[1] Ige, Olugbenga. “Binance Reacts as FG Drops Tax Charges against Executives.” Punch Newspapers, 14 June 2024, punchng.com/binance-reacts-as-fg-drops-tax-charges-against-executives/#:~:text=Crypto%20exchange%20platform%2C%20Binance%20has.

[2] Egbejule, Eromo. “Binance Executive Denied Bail in Nigeria over Money Laundering Charges.” The Guardian, 17 May 2024, www.theguardian.com/technology/article/2024/may/17/binance-executive-denied-bail-in-nigeria-over-money-laundering-charges. Accessed 18 June 2024.

[3] Sigalos, MacKenzie, & Smith, Elliot. “Binance Executive Escapes Nigerian Custody as Authorities File New Tax Charges.” CNBC, 25 Mar. 2024, www.cnbc.com/2024/03/25/binance-executive-escapes-nigerian-custody-as-authorities-file-new-tax-charges.html.

[4] Smith, Elliot. “Nigeria Battles to Halt Spiraling Currency Crisis and Rising Food Insecurity.” CNBC, 5 Mar. 2024, www.cnbc.com/2024/03/05/nigeria-battles-to-halt-spiraling-currency-crisis-and-rising-food-insecurity.html.

[5] Central Bank of Nigeria. “Central Bank of Nigeria: Money and Credit Statistics.” Www.cbn.gov.ng, 2023, www.cbn.gov.ng/rates/inflrates.asp.

[6] Eboh, Camillus. “Nigeria Drops Tax Charges against Binance Executives.” Reuters, 14 June 2024, www.reuters.com/business/finance/nigeria-drops-tax-charges-against-binance-executives-2024-06-14/.

[7] Eboh, Camillus. “Nigeria Drops Tax Charges against Binance Executives.” Reuters, 14 June 2024, www.reuters.com/business/finance/nigeria-drops-tax-charges-against-binance-executives-2024-06-14/.

[8] Egbejule, Eromo. “Binance Executive Denied Bail in Nigeria over Money Laundering Charges.” The Guardian, 17 May 2024, www.theguardian.com/technology/article/2024/may/17/binance-executive-denied-bail-in-nigeria-over-money-laundering-charges.

[9] Oluwafemi, Ayodele. “Olukoyede: Some Youths Trading Crypto Unaware They’re Being Used to Fund Terrorism.” TheCable, 16 May 2024, www.thecable.ng/olukoyede-some-youths-trading-crypto-unaware-theyre-being-used-to-fund-terrorism/.

[10] U.S. Congress. “Letter to President Biden, Secretary Blinken, and Special Presidential Envoy Carstens.” House Foreign Affairs Committee, 4 June 2024, foreignaffairs.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/McCormick-Letter-Gambaryan.pdf.

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